Chang’an, historically the capital of the most dynasties and the most influential city in China, has undergone several relocations due to historical reasons, but its core locations have been near present-day Xi’an and Xianyang. Over seventeen dynasties and regimes established their capitals in Chang’an, totaling over 1,200 years of imperial history.
Among the many dynasties that established their capitals in Chang’an, the Western Han, Sui, and Tang Dynasties are considered the most prosperous periods in Chinese history. During these times, Chang’an evolved into an international metropolis. In historical evaluations, it is not only regarded as the foremost among China’s Four Great Ancient Capitals but is also compared to Athens in Greece, Rome in Italy, and Cairo in Egypt, making it one of the world’s Four Great Ancient Capitals.
From 195 BC to 25 AD and from 580 to 900 AD, Chang’an was the largest city in the world. At the peak of its development, Chang’an had a population exceeding one million. During its most glorious phase, Chang’an served as the world’s center, attracting numerous foreign envoys and pilgrims. This prominence inspired the emperors who established their capitals there to envision a legacy that would be remembered through the ages. As a result, during the Tang Dynasty, Chang’an was associated with the counties of Wannian and Chang’an, symbolizing the idea of eternal Chang’an.
Western Zhou Period
The Xi’an region has long been a capital site, with the earliest records referring to Fengjing and Haojing, the capitals of the Western Zhou Dynasty (1111 BC – 770 BC).
Haojing, also known as Fenghao, consisted of two substantial cities built along the Feng River: Fengjing to the west and Haojing to the east, collectively known as “Fenghao.” These cities were constructed by King Wen and King Wu of Zhou. Traditionally, these two cities are considered a single entity due to their different functions: Fengjing primarily served religious and sacrificial purposes during the later Western Zhou period, while Haojing functioned as the administrative center.
Qin Dynasty
Since 1959, archaeological investigations have been conducted at the ruins of the Qin capital, Xianyang. These investigations revealed that the palace was located on the Loess Plateau on the northern bank of the Wei River. The site contains over ten large rammed earth building foundations. The primary site excavated is Foundation No. 1, which measures 60 meters east-west, 45 meters north-south, and rises 6 meters above the ground. Its layout is rectangular with a curved angle. Preliminary restoration studies indicate that it was a multi-layered rammed earth platform supporting a multi-storied pavilion. The central part of the platform was a two-story main hall, surrounded by smaller rooms at different levels, with a corridor encircling the lower floor.
The building’s compact structure, tiered layout, and clear distinction between primary and secondary areas provided effective use and appearance. Based on the building materials and pottery inscriptions, combined with historical records of the palace’s location, this is considered an important palace within Xianyang. It was originally built in the mid-to-late Warring States period, later expanded and repaired multiple times, and was destroyed by fire at the end of the Qin Dynasty. However, some believe that identifying Foundation No. 1 as Xianyang Palace lacks strong evidence.
Western Han Period
At the end of the Qin Dynasty and the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the area of Chang’an was considered a village of the Qin capital, Xianyang. It was the domain of Chang’an Jun, the brother of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, hence the name “Chang’an.”
In the early Han Dynasty, Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang decreed that Chancellor Xiao He oversee the construction of Chang’an as the new capital, marking the beginning of the Han Empire’s grand establishment.
The Han Chang’an City was located in the northwest suburbs of present-day Xi’an, covering an area of about 36 square kilometers, roughly four times the size of contemporary Rome. The city had 12 gates and 8 major streets, the longest of which was 5,500 meters. About two-thirds of the city’s area was occupied by palaces, noble residences, government offices, and temples. The palaces were concentrated in the central and southern parts of the city, including Chang Le Palace, Wei Yang Palace, Gui Palace, Bei Palace, and Ming Guang Palace.
Wei Yang Palace, in particular, was the residence and administrative center for emperors starting from Emperor Hui of Han, making it one of the most famous palaces in Chinese history. Residential areas were located in the north of the city, divided into 160 “neighborhoods.” Markets were situated in the northwest corner of the city, known as the “Nine Markets of Chang’an.” To the west of the city lay the vast Shanglin Garden, featuring Kunming Pool and Jianzhang Palace. To the south were ritual buildings constructed during Wang Mang’s reign. Han Chang’an City replaced the Warring States period’s layout of nested cities by consolidating residential, industrial, and palace areas into a single city, a model followed by later capitals.
At the end of the Western Jin Dynasty, Emperor Min of Jin briefly established the capital in Chang’an. Afterward, the Chang’an area in Guanzhong became a frequent site of warfare, with various regimes, including Former Zhao, Former Qin, Later Qin, Western Wei, and Northern Zhou, also setting their capitals in Chang’an.
Sui Dynasty
After Emperor Wen of Sui, Yang Jian, established the Sui Dynasty, the capital was initially set in Han Chang’an City. At that time, Han Chang’an had been ravaged by long-term warfare and was old, dilapidated, cramped, and heavily polluted. Thus, Emperor Wen decided to build a new city.
In the second year of the Kaihuang era (582 AD), Emperor Wen chose a location to the southeast of Chang’an City, on Longshou Plateau, described as “a place of beautiful river plains, abundant vegetation, fertile land, and suitable for establishing a capital” (Book of Sui – Biography of Emperor Gaozu). The new city, named Daxingcheng, covered an area of 84 square kilometers. The construction was primarily overseen by architect Yu Wenkai, starting with the Daxing Palace City and then the Imperial City.
In the third year of the Kaihuang era (583 AD), canals including Longshou Canal, Yong’an Canal, and Qingming Canal were dug to the west of the city, channeling the Shaan, Jiao, and Lu rivers directly to the palace city. The following year, the Guangtong Canal was dug 300 li east from Daxingcheng to Tongguan, bringing water from the Wei River to facilitate transportation to the Yellow River. In 605 AD, Emperor Yang of Sui ascended the throne and constructed the Tongji Canal, linking Daxing with Jiangdu (present-day Yangzhou). In 608 AD, the Yongji Canal was also built. By the ninth year of the Daye era (613 AD), more than 100,000 people were employed to build the outer city walls of Daxingcheng, thus completing the overall layout of the city.
Tang Dynasty
In 618 AD, Li Yuan declared himself emperor, establishing the Tang Dynasty and renamed Daxing to Chang’an. The city was further expanded and improved during the reigns of Emperor Taizong and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, who added the Daming Palace and Xingqing Palace, among other structures.
Tang Chang’an was the first city in world history to reach a population of one million. Besides residents, royalty, high officials, soldiers, servants, Buddhist and Daoist monks, and ethnic minorities, foreign merchants, envoys, students, and monks totaled no less than 30,000 people. Tang Chang’an’s technological, cultural, political, and culinary influences spread worldwide. Western culture was absorbed and reinterpreted through Chang’an before spreading to neighboring countries and regions. Chang’an became the hub of global commerce and cultural exchange, making it the largest international metropolis of its time.
Tang Chang’an City consisted of three parts: the Outer City, the Palace City, and the Imperial City, covering a total area of over 80 square kilometers. The Outer City was rectangular, measuring 9,721 meters east-west and 8,651.7 meters north-south, with a circumference of 36.7 kilometers. Each side had three gates, with the main gate on the south side, Mingde Gate, having five passages, while the others had three.
The Palace City, located in the northern central part of the Outer City, was also rectangular, measuring 1,492 meters north-south and 2,820 meters east-west. The central part housed the Taiji Palace (formerly Sui Daxing Palace), with the main hall being the Taiji Hall (formerly Sui Daxing Hall). To the east was the East Palace for the Crown Prince, and to the west was the Yeting Palace for palace residents. The Imperial City, south of the Palace City, had seven east-west streets and five north-south streets, with the ancestral temple on the left and the state temple on the right, along with central government offices and subordinate institutions. Later, Emperor Taizong (Li Shimin) expanded the Daming Palace, initially built by his father for summer retreat, and Emperor Xuanzong (Li Longji) enlarged the Xingqing Palace, which had been his residence as the Prince of Linzi, forming the “Three Palaces” of Taiji, Daming, and Xingqing.
Post-Tang Period
After the Tang Dynasty, Chang’an ceased to be the capital. The Later Liang established the Da’an Prefecture, the Later Tang set up the Jingzhao Prefecture, and the Song Dynasty created the Shaanxi Circuit and Yongxing Military Route. The Yuan Dynasty designated the Anxi and Fengyuan Routes.
Ming Dynasty
In the second year of the Hongwu era (1369 AD), Zhu Yuanzhang renamed Fengyuan Road as Xi’an Prefecture. He also constructed the Xi’an city walls on the foundations of the Tang Chang’an Imperial City. These walls remain today as the most well-preserved ancient city walls in China.